It is fitting to briefly take a glance at history at arguably the
greatest Reformer, Martin Luther, who firmly stood by “Scripture alone”, and preached
“faith alone” as the means of salvation. His testimony is both a relevant challenge
and encouragement to us today to stand by the “Five Solas” amidst hostility against
pure Christian doctrine from within and without the church.
Introduction
“The term 'Reformation' is used by
historians and theologians to refer to the western European movement
[1517-1648], centering upon individuals such as Martin Luther, Huldrych
Zwingli, and John Calvin, concerned with moral, theological, and institutional
reform of the Christian church in that region.” (McGrath, 1998:156). “Martin
Luther... is one of the few men of whom it may be said that the history of the
world was profoundly altered by his work... Whether honored or opposed, none
can deny his preeminent place in the history of the church.” (Walker,
1959:302). “Other men and women felt deeply the need for reform but none
matched the burly German” (Shelley, 1982:256).
Early in the 20th
century, Ernst Troeltsch defined Protestantism as a “modification of
Catholicism” in which Catholic problems remain, but different solutions given
(Shelley, 1982:256). The four Catholic concerns that Protestantism answered in
a new way are: How is a person saved? Where does religious authority lie? What
is the Church? And what is the essence of Christian living? It is Luther that
finally offered biblical solutions that have stood the test of time to these
questions.
Luther before the Reformation
Luther was born in Eisleben,
Germany on 10th November 1483. His father was a poor Saxon miner.
His parents had high hopes for him academically, desiring that he become a lawyer.
He obtained free education at Eisenach School. “His father valued education and
made it possible, through hard work in the mining industry, for Martin to
attend college in Erfurt. The University of Erfurt was the most celebrated in
all Germany.” (Murrell, 1998:15). He proved to be a brilliant law student, and
obtained an MA degree by 1505. While at university, John Wesel, a Christian
humanist greatly influenced him. It was also at university that he got
introduced to the Bible when, to his amazement, he discovered a copy of the
then rare document in the library while browsing the books.
On a certain day in 1505, as he
was returning to Erfurt from a visit to his parents at Mansfeldt, Luther was
caught up in a thunderstorm. He was struck by a bolt of lightning, knocking him
to the ground. In fear, he called out to the Roman Catholic's patroness of
miners crying, “St. Anne, save me! And I'll become a monk.” (Shelley,
1982:256). Luther had every intention of becoming a lawyer according to his
parents' wishes. But two weeks after his lightning experience, consumed by
guilt, Luther kept his vow to St. Anne by joining the Augustinian monastery at
Erfurt. His parents were disappointed as their hopes of Luther becoming a
lawyer went down the drain.
He was ordained a priest in 1507
after studying theology. And in 1508 he got a teaching position at the
University of Wittenberg, where he also earned his Bachelor of Bible degree in
theology. After a year at Wittenburg, he was transferred to Erfurt, where he
earned his second theology degree, and taught the Sentences of Peter Lombard,
the standard text of theology then (Murrell, 1998:16). He would later receive
his Doctor of Divinity degree in 1512 while he continued to teach.
Luther was a very dedicated monk.
The Pelagian teaching that surrounded him taught him to save himself through
good works. “In the monastery he lived a life of strict asceticism... He
cheerfully performed the humblest tasks. He prayed and chastised himself even
beyond the strictest monastic rules. He wasted away till he looked like a
skeleton. His cell, even in the severest cold of winter, was unheated. He often
spent the night in vigils and only occasionally slept on a mat.” (Kuiper,
1964:162). He would recall years later that, “I kept the rule so strictly that
I may say that if ever a monk got to heaven by his sheer monkery, it was I. If
I had kept on any longer, I should have killed myself with vigils, prayers,
reading and other work” (Shelley, 1982:256). “And yet, despite all of his
efforts, Luther was still burdened with a sense of shame and guilt. His soul
was in the deepest depths of despair because, no matter how hard he tried, he
knew he had not done enough to merit salvation” (Murrell, 1998:17).
In 1515, while pondering Paul's
epistle to the Romans, He came across the words in chapter one verse 17 that
read: “For
in it the righteousness of God is revealed from faith to faith; as it is
written, ‘But the righteous man shall live by faith’” (NASB). Luther
later recalled, “Night and day I pondered until I saw the connection between
the justice of God and the statement that 'the just shall live by his faith.'
Thereupon I felt myself to be reborn and to have gone through open doors into
paradise.” (Shelley, 1982:257). Luther now clearly understood that man only got
saved by grace through faith in Christ's finished work on the cross, and not by
any personal merit. This clashed with what he had previously known as the Roman
Catholic Church's doctrine of justification by faith and good works. Luther would
later argue that: “Good works do not make a man good, but a good man does good
works.” (Shelley, 1982:260).
The Beginning
of the Reformation
The Renaissance, spanning the 14th
to 17th centuries, was a cultural revolution in Europe that inspired
the exploration of the literal and arts classics. Scholars in this era were
known as humanists, to which Desiderius Erasmus is reputed as the greatest of
them. Though many of the greatest Christian humanists died Roman Catholic, such
as Erasmus, “it would be impossible to exaggerate their importance as
precursors to the Reformation.” (Renwick & Harman, 1999:106, 107). With a
return to the classics, the Renaissance led people back to original Greek and
Hebrew Scriptural documents, looking beyond the Latin Vulgate and other
patristic translations. Erasmus himself produced an invaluable Greek
translation of the New Testament, the first in print. It was against this
background that Luther “launched the most gigantic revolution in the history of
the Christian Church” (Walker, 1959:302).
The sale of indulgences,
introduced during the Crusades, was a great source of income for the pope.
Roman Catholicism taught that payment of indulgences (contributions to a worthy
cause) absolved the individual from partial or even full punishment for sins
that had already been confessed and forgiven. So with the discovery that
justification is by faith alone, Luther began to attack the theology behind
indulgences in his sermons.
But it is a particular incident
that heightened Luther’s fury with the issue of indulgences. The Dominican
monk, John Tetzel, was preaching throughout Germany raising funds on behalf of
the pope to complete the construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Tetzel
alleged that indulgences paid for this cause would even free souls from
purgatory, claiming that, “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul
from purgatory springs” (Shelley, 1982:258). Duke Frederick, prince of Saxony,
forbade the sale of these indulgences in his territory. But his Wittenberg citizenry
traveled to other towns to buy the indulgences. It is this act that prompted
Luther's response against indulgences (Vos, 1960:79).
Luther drew up 95 propositions
(theses) for theological debate on 31st October 1517. On All Saints'
Day, he posted them on the Castle Church door at Wittenberg in accordance with
the university custom of proposing a debate. Among other things, the 95 Theses
argued that “indulgences cannot remove guilt, do not apply to purgatory, and
are harmful because they induce a false sense of security in the donor.” That
was the spark that ignited the Reformation (Shelley, 1982:258). Within four
weeks, the theses, originally in Latin, were translated into several languages
and distributed to every country in Western Europe (Murrell, 1998:18).
The Dominicans immediately
reported Luther to Rome as a man guilty of preaching “dangerous doctrines”. The
pope summoned him to Rome in July 1518 but Luther snubbed the invitation
because honoring it would have led him to his execution (Renwick & Harman,
1999:110).
Luther insisted on Scriptural
proof that he was wrong. During an 18-day debate in July 1519 with theologian
John Eck in a highly charged atmosphere at Leipzig, Luther said, “A council may
sometimes err. Neither the church nor the pope can establish articles of faith.
These must come from Scripture.” (Shelley, 1982:259). Luther henceforth
denounced papal authority and took on Scriptural authority to govern him
instead. After the debate, Eck lobbied for Luther to be declared a heretic. But
Luther sought audience with the German people by publishing a series of
pamphlets. Three of the most famous pamphlets produced in 1520 are: 'To the Nobility of the German Nation', 'On the Babylonish Captivity of the Church',
and 'Concerning Christian Liberty'
(Renwick & Harman, 1999:111). Issues he addressed through the pamphlets
included: the church's wealth and political power, and the invalidity of the
seven sacraments (Luther recognized Baptism and the Lord's Supper only as the
two ordinances instituted by Christ).
Luther also became a
controversialist. “He insisted that people either side entirely with him –
because of what he saw as the great danger of the church of Rome and the papacy
– or else get away from him and become his enemies” (Olson, 1999:378). In his
expository series of the Gospel of John in 1538, he began one of his sermons by
stating: “Although we must always expect the best from man, especially from the
believers, we remember that they may err and go astray. If this truth had been
observed in Christendom, we would have had neither the pope nor all the filth
and stench of his anti-Christian doctrine with which the Christian Church was
later seduced” (Murray, 1965:30).
Luther's Excommunication
On 15th June 1520, Pope
Leo X issued a Bull (a papal document named after its seal) condemning 41 of
Luther's beliefs as “heretical, or scandalous, or false, or offensive to pious
ears, or seductive of simple minds, or repugnant to Catholic truths.” (Shelley,
1982:255). The bull called upon him and his followers to recant within 60 days,
and also ordered for his works to be burned. But in response, on 10th
December 1520, Luther instead publicly burned the Bull condemning him, the
Canon Law, and forged Decretals (decisions of popes and general councils) in a
bonfire outside Wittenberg (Renwick & Harman, 1999:111).
In January 1521 the pope declared
him a heretic and excommunicated him from the church. In the same year, Emperor
Charles V summoned Luther to the Diet (a national meeting of princes and powerful
leaders) at Worms to account for his writings.
The exchanges are reported to have been hostile as he was questioned
about his writings. Luther again appealed to the authority of Scripture and
stated, “My conscience is captive to the Word of God... I will not recant
anything, for to go against conscience is neither honest nor safe. Here I
stand, I cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen.” (Shelley,
1982:260). The emperor responded by declaring him an outlaw with the sentence
to fall in 21 days.
But
Duke Frederick, whose territory included Wittenberg, saved him from execution
when he sent troupes to intercept Luther's journey back home by staging a
kidnapping. Disguised as a nobleman with the name Junker George, Luther was
afforded refuge at the Wartburg Castle for almost a year. But this time wasn't
spent without productivity. It is here that he translated the New Testament
into German using Erasmus Desiderius' recent Greek translation. Luther's German
translation was pivotal to the Reformation.
At the same time, the revolt
against Rome spread. More radical reformers than Luther emerged. Princes, dukes
and electors are among those that gave support to the movement. Younger
humanists also rallied behind him. Luther returned to Wittenberg in March 1522
to this excitement among the people. Upon his return he did away with the
office of bishop, advocating for the pastoral office instead. Monks and nuns
also abandoned celibacy and began to marry, with Luther himself taking a former
nun as his wife in 1525.
Challenges during the Reformation
Both the Nobles' Revolt in 1523
and the Peasants' Revolt in 1525 caused Luther great anguish as he was blamed
for them. In 1524, the German peasants took advantage of the atmosphere of
reform and attempted to extend it to their social and economic ills by
revolting against their lords. When the peasants turned violent, Luther reacted
furiously against them in his pamphlet: 'Against
the Thievish and Murderous Hordes of Peasants', calling on the princes to
crash the revolt. In 1525 the princes did likewise, leaving about 100,000
peasants dead. As a response, surviving peasants labeled Luther a false
prophet, with many returning to Catholicism, while others resorting to more
radical forms of the Reformation (Shelley, 1982:261). Many of his followers
became Anabaptists. Luther, initially opposed to persecution tactics, would
later recommend the persecution of the Anabaptists in 1530 as the movement grew
rapidly (Renwick & Harman, 1999:116).
Charles
V called the first Diet of Speyer in 1526 aimed at inciting action against
Luther's views. But in a rare twist of events, the Diet gave the edict of
toleration, allowing each German state to adhere to the religion of its ruling
prince. The second Diet of Speyer in 1529 ruled that Lutheran districts should
remain Lutheran, and Catholic districts should remain Catholic, but with the
Catholic Church allowed religious freedom in Lutheran territory. The
evangelical minority in attendance protested against the decision, thus the
origin of the term 'Protestant' (Renwick & Harman, 1999:113). After the
Diet, Germany was divided into Protestant and Catholic sections that bitterly
opposed each other.
In 1530 Reformation leaders
gathered at Augsburg to draft a common statement of faith. Luther was unable to
attend because he was still outlawed. Philip Melanchthon, a young Greek
professor at Wittenburg, and Luther's eventual successor as the leader of the
Reformation, drafted the Augsburg Confession. The Confession was signed by
Lutheran princes and theologians (Shelley, 1982:263).
Despite his problems with the law
and the church, at about 1531 Luther began to suffer health problems that
included kidney and bladder stones, arthritis, and eventually angina. He died
in Eisleben, his birthplace, in 1546 after suffering a stroke. He was buried in
the Castle Church in Wittenberg.
Almost
10 years after his death, The Peace of Augsburg (1555), following a civil war
between Charles V and Lutheran princes (1546 -1555), allowed each prince to
decide the religion of its subjects. It also banned all other sects of
Protestantism except Lutheranism. As a result, Lutheranism eventually became a
state religion in large sections of the empire (Shelley, 1982:263). But princes
and bishops who turned Protestant had to surrender their estates.
Conclusion
Despite his brilliance and zeal
for the Lord, by all means Luther was not perfect and earned quite some
warranted criticism along the way. This is seen in some controversial
theological views he held and his
extremist reaction to the peasant revolt and other issues. But it is his
solutions to the four Catholic concerns mentioned above that render his
contribution to the Reformation of the Church as matchless. With submission to
Scriptural authority, Luther answered the concerns as follows: How is a person
saved? Not by works but by faith alone. Where does religious authority lie? Not
in the Roman Catholic Church but in Scripture alone. What is the Church? It is
the community of all Christian believers since all are priests unto God. And
what is the essence of Christian living? Serving God in any useful calling,
whether ordained or lay (Shelley, 1982:264). Thus his influence lives
on even today.
Bibliography
Kuiper, B. K. 1964. The Church in History. Michigan: Christian
Schools International
McGrath, A. E. 1998. Historical Theology: An Introduction to the
History of the Christian Thought. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
Murray, I. H. 1965. The Reformation of the Church: A collection of
Reformed and Puritan documents on Church issues. Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth
Trust
Murrell, S. E. 1998. A Glorious Institution: The Church in
History. Parts Three and Four. Pensacola: Mount Zion Publications
Olson, R. E. 1999. The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty
Centuries of Tradition & Reform. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press.
Renwick, A. M. & Harman A. M. 1999. The Story of the Church. 3rd
Edition. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press
Shelley, B. L. 1982. Church History in Plain Language. Dallas.
Word Publishing
Vos, H. F. 1960. Highlights of Church History. Chicago: Moody
Press
Walker. W. 1959. A History of the Christian Church. Edinburgh: T.
& T. Clark
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